The Influence of Culture and History on Ch'an
QUESTION:
From a cultural, historical standpoint, would you explain why it seems that there were so many more masters and advanced practitioners in ancient China (T'ang and Sung dynasties) than there are in our present time? Was it different, perhaps easier, practicing centuries ago? In terms of culture, is Ch'an or Zen practice more suitable for Asians than for Americans?
SHIH-FU:
Of course, culture and history have had a strong influence on Ch'an. China was ripe for a change when Ch'an emerged during the T'ang dynasty. Confucianism and Taoism, China's native philosophic traditions, had reached saturation. It was difficult for gifted practitioners and scholars in these traditions to make further breakthroughs. In contrast to the familiar traditional doctrines of Confucianism and Taoism, Ch'an offered a fresh, direct perspective. Those who switched to Ch'an were already well prepared intellectually and in practice, so they adopted the teachings and methods of practice in a solid, determined manner and were therefore able to make progress.
Even so, though the conditions were ideal, only a few people in the many large monasteries achieved profound insight through Ch'an. By the time of the Sung dynasty, there were far fewer practitioners, and therefore far fewer accomplished masters. This occurred in part because Confucianism had lured many people back to its tradition by adopting some Ch'an characteristics. However, there were a few great masters during the Sung dynasty, among them Ju-ching (1163-1228), Dogen's (1200-1253) master, who was instrumental in spreading the Soto sect.
The cultural milieu also influenced the success of Ch'an in China. During the T'ang and Sung dynasties, Ch'an practitioners were able to isolate themselves from society and practice in the mountains. They were not bothered by the government. They did not rely on offerings and on followers for their livelihoods. Their lifestyles were stable and simple. Furthermore, they had a sincere attitude, and a strong, focused commitment to practice. Many people who moved to the mountains to cultivate wisdom did so for life. Their determination was enduring.
Now let's talk about Ch'an in the West. There are a few similarities that American has with China. For one, Westerners have turned to Ch'an because of dissatisfaction with their own religions and philosophies, just as Confucians and Taoists did during the T'ang dynasty. The teachings of Ch'an are appealing to intelligent, receptive people. For those people who are searching for a different spiritual path, an understanding of Ch'an teachings is positive and beneficial.
Although many Westerners have accepted the teachings of Ch'an without too much difficulty, they have not fared as well with the practice. Sincere practice, for Americans, is difficult ─ difficult in terms of attitude, environment, and willingness.
In regard to willingness and attitude toward practice, Westerners differ from the Chinese of the T'ang dynasty. The concept of practicing the Tao or Path was already deeply ingrained in the Chinese culture, so the transition to the practice of Ch'an was smooth. Americans are not as fortunate. For the most part, Western culture has not been exposed to the idea of personal practice as a means of discovering and solving the problems of human existence. In Western religions, people rely on the authority of God, or the love of God, to solve their problems.
Now let's talk about Ch'an in the West. There are a few similarities that American has with China. For one, Westerners have turned to Ch'an because of dissatisfaction with their own religions and philosophies, just as Confucians and Taoists did during the T'ang dynasty. The teachings of Ch'an are appealing to intelligent, receptive people. For those people who are searching for a different spiritual path, an understanding of Ch'an teachings is positive and beneficial.
Although many Westerners have accepted the teachings of Ch'an without too much difficulty, they have not fared as well with the practice. Sincere practice, for Americans, is difficult ─ difficult in terms of attitude, environment, and willingness.
In regard to willingness and attitude toward practice, Westerners differ from the Chinese of the T'ang dynasty. The concept of practicing the Tao or Path was already deeply ingrained in the Chinese culture, so the transition to the practice of Ch'an was smooth. Americans are not as fortunate. For the most part, Western culture has not been exposed to the idea of personal practice as a means of discovering and solving the problems of human existence. In Western religions, people rely on the authority of God, or the love of God, to solve their problems.
Are practitioners in America willing to become monks and nuns? Most of the practitioners during the T'ang dynasty were home-leavers. In Japan today, most practitioners are householders. However, in Japan, entire families can live in monasteries, or the practitioner can live in a monastery while the rest of the family lives in a regular community. America, though, is not Japan, and I am not sure that it can adopt a similar environment.
In America, I feel that Ch'an will be practiced and taught mostly by householders, because few people seem willing to become monks or nuns. Householders will be the ones who will have enlightenment experiences, and be Ch'an masters, and lead others. If this occurs, what will be the level of practice and attainment? I am not sure. It would be wrong to say that householders cannot have high levels of enlightenment, but if householders continue to live with their families while practicing, problems will arise. There will be too many responsibilities, and not enough time or focus for practice.
Cultural environment, too, poses a problem for most Americans. In order to make profound progress, Ch'an practitioners should lead a steady, stable lifestyle. If practitioners' lives are too hectic, too cluttered, practice will be difficult. A simple existence is necessary. Let me illustrate. There was once a very learned practitioner named Hsiang-yen Chih-Hsien who was posed a question by his master. Even with all his knowledge and practice, Hsiang-yen could not answer the question, so he abandoned Buddhism and moved to the mountains, where he lived alone. He existed, nothing more. One day as he was sweeping his hut, a piece of bamboo cracked, and upon hearing the noise he got enlightened. Although he had abandoned the formal teachings of Ch'an, the question his master had asked stayed in his mind. His enlightenment was possible because he had a simple mentality, and he lived a simple life in a simple environment.
A similar situation would be difficult to come by in our present time. It is hard to isolate oneself. Yet, there are places where one can live and practice undisturbed. Actually, in terms of physical environment, America is a good place for practice. There is abundant land and material, and the government is stable and accepting. What is necessary is the right attitude toward practice. If you were given the opportunity to live and practice without interruptions, would you have the mentality to follow it through, or would you abandon your commitment after a few months?
Another problem for Americans is that they have too much mobility. People here constantly look for new teachers and teachings, and if they do not find success after a short time in one system, they move on to another. In hopping from one master to another, it would be difficult to make progress, no matter how hard one practiced.
Fundamental to making progress in Ch'an is practicing under the guidance of a master. Ta-hui Tsung-kao (1089-1163) was considered deeply enlightened, yet he was advised to seek out Master Yuan-wu K'och'in (1063-1135). Within a year, Ta-hui had two more profound experiences. Master Yuan-wu was a necessary factor in his development. Ta-hui was fortunate to meet such a great man.
At present, it is quite difficult to have great masters come to the West. This does not mean that there is no hope for the future. People must first adopt the correct mentality. They must properly understand the practice of Ch'an and the importance of cultivating wisdom. When this happens, great masters will appear.
China, during the T'ang dynasty, was ready for the emergence of Hui-neng (638-713), the Sixth Patriarch. But had it not been for the work of the Fifth Patriarch, Hung-jen (601-674), the situation would have been much different. The ground was fertile, ready for a seed such as Hui-neng. When the ground is fertile enough in the West, great masters will appear here also.
Resources
Zen Wisdom, The Influence of Culture and History on Ch'an , p.289-294
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